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Author: Admin | 2025-04-28
To isolate the effects of these hormonal pills when they were used together [52,53,54]. Our findings align with previous research demonstrating a relationship between kidney stones and hypertension (HTN) [55, 56]. While some studies have indicated that patients with hypertension are at an increased risk of developing urolithiasis, the design of this cohort study, focused on new hypertension cases, suggests that kidney stones may precede and increase the risk of hypertension. Additionally, shared pathophysiological mechanisms, such as impaired calcium metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation, may contribute to both conditions, warranting further investigation [57, 58].Behavioral factors: Smoking and opium useThe relationship between smoking, opium use, and hypertension (HTN) is complex, with conflicting findings reported across studies [18, 32, 48, 49, 59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66]. Some studies indicate that these behaviors may be associated with either an increased or decreased risk of HTN, while others find no significant relationship. For example, Najafipour et al. reported that occasional opium use is associated with a 42% increase in the risk of HTN, whereas continuous use is associated with a 36% increase [66]. In contrast, Rezaianzadeh et al. observed an inverse relationship between opium use and HTN [12]. Similarly, Kumar et al. identified an inverse relationship between smoking and HTN in men, while Gu et al. reported a higher incidence of HTN among female smokers [19]. Our findings indicate an association of smoking and opium use with an increased risk of HTN, particularly with longer durations of smoking. However, it is essential to note that this association does not imply causality and should be interpreted with caution. Several factors may explain the conflicting results in the literature. First, cross-sectional study designs may be limited by the potential for behavior modification following a diagnosis of hypertension (HTN). Furthermore, differences in the drugs studied across various research efforts may help explain the variability in findings [18, 48, 65].Health conditions and hypertensionOur study also confirmed a strong relationship between pre-hypertension and HTN in both sexes, a finding consistent with previous research [18, 67] Additionally, rheumatoid disease was identified as a significant predictor of HTN in both men and women, even after adjusting for medication use, including steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), statins, and aspirin. This aligns with previous studies that suggest inflammation, oxidative stress, and long-term medication use may contribute to an increased prevalence of HTN in patients with rheumatoid disease [68,69,70,71]. Moreover, we found that individuals with a family history of HTN are at greater risk of developing the condition, with this risk being more pronounced in women than in men. Previous studies have similarly demonstrated that individuals with a family history of HTN are 2–4 times more likely to develop the condition compared to those without such a history [72,73,74,75]. This increased risk is attributed to genetic factors and differences in anthropometric parameters, such as waist circumference, BMI, and blood lipids, which are often higher in individuals with a family history of hypertension [74, 76]. A history of head injury with anesthesia was also associated with a higher
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